Introduction
Instant messaging is a set of communication technologies used
for text-based communication between two or more participants over the Internet
or other types of network. It happens in real-time and allows effective
and efficient communication, allowing immediate receipt of acknowledgment or reply. Since it is synchronous, people tend to make language errors
in their written texts. Some common errors made in real-time text messaging are:
1.Global Errors –
more serious errors
e.g.:
incorrect verb tense, verb incorrectly formed, unclear message, incorrect or
missing connector, incorrect sentence structure, etc.
2. Local
Errors –
less serious errors
e.g.:
incorrect subject-verb agreement, missing article, wrong word choice including
prepositions, problem with singular or plural form, etc.
3. Other
Errors –
errors commonly made by native speakers
e.g.:
capitalization, coherence, comma splice, dangling modifier, fragment, lower
case, punctuation, etc.
One of the factors of why people use their languages
differently with different people is
because of social distance. Social distance describes
the distance between different groups of society which includes age,
social class,
race/ethnicity,
race, etc. The frequency of language errors made can also be influenced
by social distance.
Literature Review
Error analysis is one of the branches of linguistics which studies
the types and causes of language errors in second language acquisition.
According to Corder (1967), error analysis is an alternative to contrastive
analysis, an approach influenced by behaviorism through which applied linguists
sought to use the formal distinctions between the learners’ first and second
languages to predict errors. A key result of error analysis has been that many
learner errors are created by learners making faulty inferences about the rules
of the new language.
One of the areas
covered in Error and Contrastive Analysis is social distance. Social distance
describes the distance between different groups of society which includes
social class, race/ethnicity, gender, age, etc. In error and contrastive
analysis studies, social distance refers to the cognitive and affective
proximity of two cultures that come into contact within an individual. There
have been quite a number of studies in the past which explore on how social
distance affects the number of errors in the language usage of a learner.
According to Carroll (2013), social distance is created when over-formalized language
is used by the speakers. This study has been conducted in China where the
students are taught using formal English in their class. The findings of this
research shows that even though the students try to get close to the people
they mingle with, the over-formalized English language use seems to be the
obstacle that creates the social distance between them. Another study has been
conducted on this matter by Hauptseminar (n.d.), in which social distance is
found to be created because of the usage of address forms that include a title
and a last name for examples Mr, Mrs, Sir, Dr, etc.
Terms
of address are linguistic forms that are used in addressing others to attract their attention or for referring to
them in the course of a conversation. “Address forms, as Murphy (1988) has
elegantly put it, are socially driven phenomena.
In other words, linguistic forms that are used to address others can mirror the complex social
relations of individuals in a speech
community (Paulston 1976; Trudgill 1983; Chaika 1982 as cited by Mohammad
Hossein Keshavarz, n.d.)” Hence, it has been proved that the way of how we
address others affect our social distance with them and the more formal we are
with people, the higher social distance we have with them.
Research Design
Methodology:
All the data
were collected from both WhatsApp groups consisting of different group members.
Then, the data were being analysed by the errors that were being made by
different person in each of the group using
the theory of social distance and ESL Grading Symbols.
ESL Grading Symbols
Global
Errors – more serious errors
(These
errors usually impede understanding.)
SYMBOL
|
EXPLANATION
|
vt
|
incorrect verb tense
|
vf
|
verb incorrectly formed
|
modal
|
incorrect use or formation of a
modal
|
cond
|
incorrect use or formation of a
conditional sentence
|
ss
|
incorrect sentence structure
|
wo
|
incorrect or awkward word order
|
conn
|
incorrect or missing connector
|
pass
|
incorrect formation or use of
passive voice
|
unclear
|
unclear message
|
Local
Errors – less serious errors
(These
errors, while distracting, most often do not impede understanding.)
SYMBOL
|
EXPLANATION
|
sv
|
incorrect subject-verb agreement
|
art
|
incorrect or missing article
|
num
|
problem with the singular or
plural of a noun
|
wc
|
wrong word choice, including
prepositions
|
wf
|
wrong word form
|
nonidiom
|
nonidiomatic (not expressed this
way in English)
|
Other
Errors
(These
errors are commonly made by native speakers.)
SYMBOL
|
EXPLANATION
|
cap
|
capitalization – capital letter
needed
|
coh
|
coherence – one idea do not lead
to the next
|
cs
|
comma splice – two independent
clauses joined by a comma
|
dm
|
dangling modifier – phrase or
clause with no word(s) to modify in a sentence
|
frag
|
fragment – incomplete sentence
|
lc
|
lower case – word(s) incorrectly
capitalized
|
p
|
punctuation – punctuation
incorrect or missing
|
pro ref
pro agree
|
pronounce reference/agreement –
pronoun reference unclear or agreement incorrect
|
ro
|
run-on – two independent clauses
joined with no punctuation
|
sp
|
spelling error – word incorrectly
spelled
|
Sampling:
There were 1
professor and 9 students’ committee of Islamic World Film Festival involved in
the first group of WhatsApp conversation. While, for the second group of WhatsApp
conversation, there were only 5 students’ committee involved in the
conversation.
Instrumentation:
Asynchronous CMC
was being used in this research is one of the smartphone application which was WhatsApp.
Two different conversations of two different groups were being recorded and
analysed.
Findings and Discussion:
Participants
make the most error in Other Errors category.The
reasons might be because the students are already familiar with the use of
English in the campus (majority BENL students) and the lecturer is an English
lecturer. The students tend to use over-formalized use of language when
speaking with the lecturer hence, commit less
error in their language. This shows that, from the students’ perspective, they
tend to have a high social distance with the lecturer because of the
differences in their status. The lecturer tends to speak more informal with the students hence, commit more errors in her language use than the students.
This shows that she views her social distance with the students as
low and is
inclined towards
a closer relationship.
Conclusion:
The most common type of errors made by the students as well
as the lecturer is not the serious type of errors. They are less serious and
commonly made by native speakers.The higher social distance, the lower errors made.
Nevertheless, in
the context of instant messaging such as WhatsApp, the errors detected in the
language usage are not really regarded as actual errors. Factors such as space,
speed, and time affect the errors in the language use in synchronous communication.
References
Carroll, K. (2013).
Language and Social Distance. Retrieved on April 1st, 2013
from http://ken-carroll.com/2008/05/17/language-and-social-distance/
Hauptseminar.
(n.d.). Retrieved from http://ifla.uni-stuttgart.de/institut/mitarbeiter/jilka/teaching/
Pragmatics/p7_politeness.pdf
Mohammad
Hossein Keshavarz. (n.d.). The Role of Social Context, Intimacy, and
Distance in the Choice of Forms of Address. Retrieved on April 1st,
2013 from http://www.iranianlinguistics.org/papers/Keshavarz.pdf
Appendix
2)
Table
of Analysis
No.
|
Sentence
|
Global Error
|
Local Error
|
Others
|
No Error
|
1
|
Prof. Faridah: Can I see fatin
|
|
|
/
|
|
2
|
or izura or whoever doing the guidelines?
|
|
|
/
|
|
3
|
I need more than just the guideline on short film.
Can we meet before 10 am tmrw? 9.30?
|
|
|
|
/
|
4
|
Izura: Yeah sure. Thatd be okay.
|
|
|
/
|
|
5
|
I’ll see you tomorrow 9.30am insya-Allah
|
|
|
|
/
|
6
|
Fatin BENL PR: Salam Prof,
I’m sorry but i’m
not the one who is doing the guideline..
|
|
|
/
|
|
7
|
Prof. Faridah: Who took the
guidelines yesterday?
|
|
|
|
/
|
8
|
Izura: Fadzil and Amira
|
|
|
|
|
9
|
Prof. Faridah: I got an
email for iysfc sf
judging.
|
|
|
/
|
|
10
|
Can amira or fadzil
see me?
|
|
|
/
|
|
11
|
So the emailed version is not from them?
|
|
|
/
|
|
12
|
Patutlah lain. U dont’t confuse me ok.
|
|
/
|
|
|
13
|
But I got list of awards
|
|
/
|
|
|
14
|
From atikah
|
|
|
/
|
|
15
|
Is she from the same comm?
|
|
|
|
|
16
|
Izura: Atikah is the APM
|
|
|
|
|
17
|
Prof. Faridah: Say tht
again. APM tu apa?
|
|
|
|
|
18
|
Fatin BENL PR: Prof, if
you’re talking about the email to mr.hasnul regarding the judging criteria, it’s with me
|
|
|
/
|
|
19
|
Prof. Faridah: I need all
the judging sheets by 9.30 tmrw cos
|
|
|
/
|
|
20
|
need to shw them to
|
|
|
/
|
|
21
|
dr bsha
|
|
|
/
|
|
22
|
ay 10
|
|
|
/
|
|
23
|
No.you have a copy of tht judging sheet
|
|
|
/
|
|
24
|
Fatin BENL PR: APM is
assistant programme manager.
|
|
|
|
/
|
25
|
Prof. Faridah: A couple was
supposed to type balik wht dr
aishah and I did semlm
|
|
|
/
|
|
26
|
Fatin BENL PR: I think the
judging sheet is with atikah
|
|
|
/
|
|
27
|
Prof. Faridah: I need
those..judging sheets for film.animation and short film
|
|
|
|
/
|
28
|
Atikah sent me sheet for iysfc shj
|
|
|
/
|
|
29
|
I am supposed to receive on on animation, another on feature and a
version of it for short film.
|
|
|
/
|
|
30
|
I have not worked on doco.
|
|
|
/
|
|
31
|
eaiting for
|
|
|
/
|
|
32
|
my fren to email
|
|
|
/
|
|
33
|
me the criteris
|
|
|
/
|
|
34
|
We are working both for
|
|
/
|
|
|
35
|
iysfc and iwff on this judging thing
|
|
|
/
|
|
36
|
Fatin BENL PR: Sorry but i don’t have
the judging sheet
|
|
|
/
|
|
37
|
Prof. Faridah: Ok.someone
does
|
|
|
|
|
38
|
Leng STABAZ : Prof
|
|
|
|
/
|
39
|
Mira has sent u the email
|
|
|
|
/
|
40
|
The judging criteria
|
|
|
|
/
|
41
|
She said
|
|
|
|
/
|
42
|
She has told u
|
|
|
|
/
|
43
|
This morning
|
|
|
|
/
|
44
|
Prof. Faridah: Good news.my harapan wants us at
their pitch session besok between 1130 and 1230.sapa punya contact ni.i can
go with u guys.kita pitch.
|
|
|
/
|
|
45
|
Fatin BENL PR: It was in
your list prof. But i
cnt go tomorrow. I have another program
|
|
|
/
|
|
46
|
Prof. Faridah: A student
must go.i want u to experience making ur own money for ur event
|
|
|
|
|
47
|
Azura HS: I wish I can
come with u but I hv
class trip trow to Media Prima
|
|
/
|
|
|
48
|
Shafeena Azli: May I know
where is the pitch session prof?
|
|
|
|
/
|
49
|
We’ll sort out who’s available & roger here as
soon as possible
|
|
|
|
|
50
|
Prof. Faridah: Sapa punya
contact tu? The ceo
is very xcited but we need to prepare quite a bit. 2 printed proposals, one
powerpoint presentation and have to bring our own laptop.
|
|
|
/
|
|
51
|
i want you to do it but I will train how
|
|
/
|
|
|
52
|
to speak good english
|
|
|
/
|
|
53
|
and wht to say
|
/
|
|
|
|
54
|
can we do the prep today? It’s march 22 which is friday.i thot tmrw
|
|
|
/
|
|
55
|
Hazim: Is it on 1130-1230
|
|
/
|
|
|
56
|
on friday? Where?
|
|
|
/
|
|
57
|
Fatin BENL PR: Prof, I got
the contact from the list of companies you gave me.
|
|
|
|
/
|
58
|
I have the
printed proposals, by the way.
|
/
|
|
|
|
59
|
Kiko BEN: Prof is it
on Thursday or Friday?
|
|
|
|
/
|
60
|
If it’s on Friday, i’ll come along with you
|
|
|
/
|
|
61
|
Prof. Faridah: R u free now
atikah? We need
to do the powerpoint.
|
|
|
/
|
|
62
|
for this trip I take 2 students to do the presentation:
|
/
|
|
|
|
63
|
atikah and raug.
|
|
|
/
|
|
64
|
you will do the presentation.i will train you how to present.we have 3
days to do this: today and tmrw.
|
|
|
/
|
|
65
|
whn can you
come today?
|
|
/
|
|
|
66
|
2 days not 3
|
|
/
|
|
|
67
|
Kiko BEN: Alright! I
can come now. My class
canceled.
|
/
|
|
|
|
68
|
Prof. Faridah: Ok.fatin is also helping
out
|
|
|
/
|
|
69
|
Maxis said no to sponsoring us. hmm…
|
/
|
|
|
|
70
|
maybe thse using maxis
no
|
|
|
/
|
|
71
|
Prof. Faridah: Atikah and rauf, u have 7 mins to
be at cerdas. wal asr
|
|
|
/
|
|
72
|
Tadi I nmpk jln jam menuju dsara
|
|
|
/
|
|
73
|
Amira BEN: Good luck!
|
|
|
|
/
|
74
|
Raouf BENL: Salam prof. I just got to know that iwa’s
mother has the specialty in SPSS. Maybe we can ask help from her mom?
|
/
|
|
|
|
75
|
Izura: Izura Raouf, not Iwa.
-.-`
|
|
|
|
/
|
76
|
Raouf BENL: Oh sorry,
Izura. (emoticons)
|
|
|
|
/
|
77
|
Prof. Faridah : Ok let me talk to dr saodah first.
|
|
|
/
|
|
78
|
she has the software and we’ll do the questionnaire,
you guys cari respondents and we run results on spss.if she wants money,
|
|
|
/
|
|
79
|
we go to izura’s mom for free service
|
/
|
|
|
|
80
|
(emoticon) will beep bck
|
|
|
|
/
|
81
|
Ok good news alhamdulillah.usm hantar 14 entries.weiii…uia must work harder!
|
|
|
/
|
|
82
|
Shafeena Azli: No biggie
|
|
|
|
|
83
|
Mlm kang saya akan anta updated version. Sapa2 u can
leave behind today’s list. So
i check back tmrw insya Allah
|
/
|
|
/
|
|
84
|
Azura HS: Email
received
|
|
|
|
|
85
|
Shafeena Azli: I’ll just
updated through webmail iwff
and highlight mana yg da anta
|
|
|
/
|
|
86
|
Azura HS: Noted!
Thanks babe
|
|
|
|
/
|
87
|
Shafeena Azli: Tadahal!
|
|
|
|
/
|
88
|
Oh yg ipta tu mana yg i ckp da email pastu i ada highlight email tu. Meaning u’ve sent the
invitation through email.
|
|
|
/
|
|
89
|
Paham x? -.- ke ayat aku berbelit ni
|
|
|
|
/
|
90
|
Amira BEN: Ape2
|
|
|
|
/
|
91
|
Izura: Mira
|
|
|
|
/
|
92
|
Amira BEN: Owh2
|
|
|
|
/
|
93
|
Izura: U ada ambil duit dkt
cerdas ke?
|
|
|
|
/
|
94
|
Nadiah Norhan: Siapa yg
azura dh call
|
|
|
|
/
|
95
|
Pening kejap
|
|
|
|
/
|
96
|
Ping
|
|
|
|
/
|
97
|
Ping
|
|
|
|
/
|
98
|
Shafeena Azli: Tu je yg di
listkan oleh zura
|
|
|
|
/
|
99
|
Azura HS: Segi, kptm, ploy tech
|
|
|
/
|
|
100
|
Shafeena Azli: Others am not sure
|
|
|
/
|
|
101
|
Azura HS: Sikit je
|
|
|
|
/
|
102
|
Cause yest dah nak habis ofc hour
|
|
|
|
/
|
103
|
Sorry
|
|
|
|
/
|
104
|
Amira BEN: Duit ape?
|
|
|
|
/
|
105
|
Izura: So, yg kptm ni kena call
balik?
|
|
|
|
/
|
106
|
Azura HS: So Iwa, I
baru baca whatsapp
|
|
|
|
/
|
107
|
Nope
|
|
|
|
/
|
108
|
He belum pass the invitation letter to his superior
|
|
|
|
/
|
109
|
Nanti I tanya dia balik
|
|
|
|
/
|
110
|
Nadiah Norhan: I dh call
|
|
|
|
/
|
111
|
And dh mntk email
|
|
|
|
/
|
112
|
And so i dh email
|
|
|
|
/
|
113
|
Izura: Alrightttt
|
|
|
|
/
|
114
|
Shafeena Azli: Anak2 kuuuu
|
|
|
|
/
|
115
|
Kerja arini bagaimana
|
|
|
|
/
|
116
|
Azura HS: Yes mummy
|
|
|
/
|
|
117
|
Izura: I duduk like an hour je
|
|
|
|
/
|
118
|
Azura HS : Sorry I tak pergi cerdas sbb
flu teruk gila sampai muka pun bengkak
|
|
|
|
/
|
119
|
Sorry
|
|
|
|
/
|
120
|
Izura: Got quiz and consultation
|
|
/
|
|
|
121
|
Shafeena Azli: Ergh flu is
bad
|
|
|
|
/
|
122
|
Azura HS: Esok I free
at 3.30pm
|
|
|
|
/
|
123
|
Shafeena Azli: Tak mengapa
iwa. Kita pelan2 kayuh janji kerja jalan.
|
|
|
|
/
|
TYPES
|
TOTAL
|
GLOBAL
ERRORS
|
8
|
LOCAL
ERRORS
|
9
|
OTHER
ERRORS
|
47
|
NO
ERRORS
|
50
|
